To what extent has North Korean foreign policy became less Essay

To what extent has North Korean foreign policy became less isolationist since the Cold War - Essay Example The tension between these two states has led to the loss of million lives in each side of the parallel from 1948 until 2002 (Foreign and Commonwealth Office 2008, cited in Turku, 2009). North Korea claimed that South Korea is a puppet of the United States. In addition, the North Korea accused South Korea of being anti-national and as an aid to foreign aggressors. Kim II Sung, throughout his reign, asked South Koreans to initiate a revolution that would abolish the US fascist military dictatorship. He further reiterated that armed struggle serves as the only means in order for the South Korea to be liberated from colonizers and oppressors. Kim II-Sung asserted that South Koreans, inspired by the construction of the Northern half and achievements in the socialist revolution, will be impelled to seek for reunification of the nation (Turku, 2009). The two nations agreed to discuss normalizing their relations starting on August 1971. The Inter-Korean summit on June 13 to 15, 2000, which is followed on October 2 to 4, 2007 in Pyongyang, marked the greatest progress that these two nations took towards peaceful coexistence. The two nations agreed to produce a joint declaration for national unification in the Korean peninsula and peaceful co-existence in the first summit (Moon 2002, cited in Turku, 2009). These historical summits were facilitated by the â€Å"sunshine policy† of South Korea. This policy has three principles namely, engage in economic terms with North Korea, respect the sovereignty of the North, and lastly zero tolerance for aggression manifested by North Korea (Turku, 2009). The present administration in South Korea abandoned the â€Å"sunshine policy† term; however, its policy still continues to concentrate on cooperation, principles of engagement, and dialogue with the North Korea. A summit that occurred on June 15, 2000 serves as historical milestones for the two nations. What was deemed as impossible in the past finally

Value chain analysis for Starbucks in Australia Essay

Value chain analysis for Starbucks in Australia - Essay Example The practice had helped the Starbucks to maintain quality over the years. However, it increased the dependency on the farmers and the variations in the productions affected the company. This made the price of the coffee in the Starbucks higher and the business was rendered unprofitable. In the case of Australia this was one of the factors for the closure of various shops. (Starbucks Coffee Company, n.d.) Operations: In the case of the Starbucks in Australia, the company operated as in the case of the other countries. There were no modifications of the products and no efforts were made to make the products suit the needs of the people in Australia. The ambience of the stores were similar to that of the other parts of the world which did not provide additional value to the customers in Australia. The main factor for the success of Starbucks in the other parts was the essence on â€Å"coffee culture†. However, in Australia, the â€Å"coffee culture† was already in place and the company could not provide extra facilities to the people. (Why Starbucks failed in Australia, 13th August, 2008) Outbound logistics: The Starbucks operates through the chain of stores in the other parts of the world. In the case of Australia, the company opened over 80 stores that were placed in the urbanized areas. The expansion never took of in a big country like that of Australia and the company had presence only in some of the pockets. (Starbucks goes cold in Australia, 29th July, 2008). Marketing and Sales: Starbucks is a well known brand all over the globe. However, surprisingly, the company has never resorted to the aggressive marketing policies. In the case of Australia, the company never marketed the brand aggressively and there were campaigns like the â€Å"red cups on cars† where starbucks cups were placed on top of cars and taxis. The company depended on the â€Å"word of mouth†

Mercury Problems In Oil And Gas Industries Environmental Sciences Essay

Mercury Problems In Oil And Gas Industries Environmental Sciences Essay Mercury is a natural occurring element and could be present in various stages of oil and natural gas exploration, production and processing. Mercury is not only hazardous to human health and the environment but could also attack process equipment components that have mercury reactive materials, leading to potential catastrophic failure to the plant. The mercury associated with petroleum and natural gas production and processing enters the environment primarily via wastewater, solid waste streams, and air emissions. Wastewater originates in production and oil refining operations in the form of produced water and wastewater respectively. The solid wastes are also generated in production (e.g. drilling muds), transportation (e.g. sludge), and refining operations (e.g. spent mercury adsorbent. The primary opportunities for mercury emission to atmosphere include fuel combustion for process utilities and fugitive emissions from process equipment. Several approaches have been used to reduce mercury emissions from oil and gas production and processing which include mercury waste treatment, recycling and disposal. Mercury is considered as a serious toxic heavy metal to both humans and the ecosystem because of its high toxicity to the central nervous system and the tendency to bio-accumulate in a human body [1]. Mercury is a natural occurring element and could be presenting varying concentrations and of various species in oil and gas fields [2]. It is freely distributed throughout production, processing, transportation and consumption systems. Table 1 shows the range of variations of the mercury content in oil and gas [3]. Wilhelm and Bloom [4] reported that the concentration of mercury in crude oil and natural gas varies between 0.01 ppb and 10 ppm depending on the geologic location, which may exist in three different forms, namely elemental (Hgo), inorganic (HgCl2), organic ((CH3)2Hg), and organo-ionic (ClHgCH3) mercury compounds. Several mercury species shown in Table 2 were detected in natural gas, gas condensate and crude oil. The properties of mercury species are difference in terms of mobility, reactivity, toxicity and bioavaibility [5]. Table 1 Range of Mercury Content in Oil and Gas Fields in the World [3]. Component Mercury Concentration Oil 0.003 21 mg/kg Condensate Gas 0.01 . 10-6 14 000 . 10-6 g/m3 The existing mercury in oil and gas can cause problems during oil and gas exploration, processing and transportation. This mercury needs to be removed from oil and gas streams especially from natural gas, in order to get pure product as well as to protect the process equipment and catalyst used in the downstream processes. For instance, it may cause mechanical failure and gas leakage of cryogenic aluminium heat exchangers. The mercury in the natural gas can degrade the aluminium coldbox materials by three basic mechanisms [Wilhelm, 1994]: amalgamation with various metals (primarily Al, Au, Ag and Zn), amalgam corrosion, and also liquid metal embrittlement (LME) [Coade and Coldham, 2006; Wilhem, 1994]. Besides, reported by Phannenstiel [7], mercury is pointed as a caused of corrosion in gas-gathering system at Groningen field in Holland [8]. Table 2. Approximate Natural Abundance Mercury Compound in Natural Gas and Gas Condensate [2]. Mercury Element Natural Gas Gas Condensate Crude Oil Hg0 >50 of total mercury >50 of total mercury >50 of total mercury (CH3)2Hg HgCl2 Rarely detected (10-50) % (10-50) % HgS Rarely detected suspended suspended HgO Rarely detected Rarely detected Rarely detected CH3HgCl Rarely detected Mining activities such as exploration and processing could also generate mercury waste generate mercury waste in the form of produced water, refinery wastewater, drilling waste, and associated wastes. The mercury wastes need to be treated and disposed due to the environmental and safety considerations. The failure to monitor and control the existing mercury in oil and gas can caused contamination on process facilities and mercury emission to water, soil and atmosphere [U.S. EPA, 2001] Mercury Removal Process From Natural Gas Mercury removal systems are most often located at gas processing facilities that produce the feedstock materials for downstream chemical manufacturing plants. It is properly designed and operated, to make sure the removal systems can scavenge mercury from the feed gas and reduce the impact of mercury on downstream processes [2]. Table 3 summarizes several methods used for mercury removal in natural gas processing. All these methods have limitations that detract from their applicability to natural gas processing [El Ela et al., 2006; El Ela et al., 2008]. Table 3 Mercury Removal Systems for Natural Gas [Bingham, 1990; El Ela et al., 2008 ]. Method Comments Chemisorption on sulfur impregnated activated carbon Most used, cheap; disposal problems Adsorption on activated carbon Low saturation loading Chemisorption on iodine impregnated activated carbon Good for high mercury concentrations Adsorption by amalgamation with a metal: Silver impregnated alumina, silver zeolites, metal sulfides and metal oxides High investment costs, high removal capacity Acid absorption of mercury chromic acid and acidic permanganate Increased corrosivity, through system contamination, low saturations Oxidizing solutions permanganate, sodium hypochlorite, and sodium vanadates Regeneration problems, system contamination Chemical reaction with H2S Increased corrosivity, limited H2S access Condensation and separation Poor removal efficiency, liquid contamination Stripping through liquid hydrocarbons Poor removal efficiency, liquid contamination The basic requirements for successful mercury removal are economics of the process and the removal medium needs to be capable to reducing mercury concentrations to extremely low and acceptable levels. The medium must have a high capacity for an active bonding to mercury so that they can retain the mercury in a form that can be disposed. The examples of commercial mercury removal systems are shown in Figure 1 (c,d), where the Salam mercury removal system is the most efficient removal method ever reported [9]. It is loaded with 19 tons of catalysts PURASPEC Absorbent 1156 (pre-activated sulfide) [El Ela et al., 2008]. Figure 1 (a,b) shows the mercury removal unit located in Malaysia which is the successful systems used to remove mercury from raw condensate [Sainal et al., 2007]. Figure 1. Joint Delivery System (JDS) mercury removal system situated in Kerteh, Terengganu, Malaysia (a), Resak Delivery System (RDS) mercury removal system situated in Kerteh, Terengganu, Malaysia (b), Mercury removal unit at Salam gas processing plant (c), Vessel loading diagram of Salam mercury removal unit (d) [El Ela et al., 2008; Sainal et al., 2007 ] Mercury Waste Generation A wide variety of waste streams contains of mercury generates from oil and gas processing. The mercury in produced hydrocarbons may escape to the environment by several avenues which are generally categorized as wastewater, solid waste streams and air emissions. During exploration and processing, wastewater originates from the produced water, refinery wastewater, drilling waste, and associated wastes (Ahmadun et al., 2009; Frankiewicz et al., 2000; U.S. EPA 2001). Solid wastes are also generated in production (e.g. drilling muds), transportation, refining operations (Juvkam-Wold, 1976; U.S. EPA 2001). Air emissions originate from fuel combustion for process utilities and fugitive emissions in the process equipment (Wilhelm, 1999; U.S. EPA 2001. These are the possible avenues of mercury to be transferred from produced hydrocarbons to the environment (Mussig and Rothmann, 1997; US EPA, 2001). Table 4 shows a wide variety of waste streams that contain mercury generated in conjunction wi th petroleum production and processing (Wilhelm, 1999). Table 4 Petroleum Processing Mercury Waste Streams [Wilhelm, 1999]. Type Matrix Mercury Sludge Hg++ Hydrocarbon Hgo, XHgX, HgS Sludge Water HgS, Hg++ Cleaning Solutions Water Hg++ inorganic compounds Cleaning Solvents Hydrocarbon Solvent Hgo, XHgX Hg Sorbent Carbon, Sulfur HgS, S, Organic compounds. Hg Sorbent Metal Sulfide, Alumina Hgo, XHgX, HgS, Cu, Al2O3 Hg Sorbent Zeolite, Ag AgHg Hg Sorbent Carbon, KI HgI2 Dehydration Fluid Triethylene glycol Hgo, XHgX, Hg++ CO2 Removal Water Hgo, XHgX, Hg++ KCO3 Sour Gas Treatment DEA, TEA Hgo, XHgX, Hg++ amines Catalysts Metal Hg amalgam Filtration Material Clays, Fibers Hgo, XHgX, Hg++ Debris Hgo, XHgX Produced Water Generally, in oil and gas production operation one of the upstream activities involves a primary separation of water, gas and oil followed by treatment of the produced water for discharge or re-use. Produced water is the largest waste stream generated in association with oil and gas production operations which contains various organic and inorganic components. It originates from water that is trapped in permeable sedimentary rocks within the wellbore. The separated water is either disharged (to an ocean, lake or stream) or re-injecting back into rock formations from whence it originated [Hayward Gordon Ltd.; Gallup and Strong]. However, some of the produced water is fairly fresh and is readily re-used for specific purposes such as agricultural, industrial, or treated water use [Sullivan et al., 2004]. There are some major components containing in produced water such as hydrocarbons and organic compounds (e.g. oil, grease, benzene, dissolved organic compounds such as napthalene, toluene, phenanthrene, and pentacholorophenol), salts (e.g. chlorides and sulfides of Ca, Mg, and Na), metals (e.g. lead, chromium, nickel, barium, manganese, iron, strontium, zinc, silver, cadmium, lithium, copper, mercury, arsenic, selenium, and boron), radionuclides and production chemicals [Frankiewicz and Gerlach, 2000; Sumi, 2005]. Moreover, produced waters are typically more saline and have total solid dissolved concentrations from less 100 mg/l to over 300 000 mg/l compared to sea water [Stewart, 2008; U.S. EPA, 2001]. Research by United States Geological survey reported that conventional oil and gas wells produce produced water that increases over time [Sumi, 2005]. In some states in United States, surface discharges of produced water is allowed and is used for stock and watering an agriculture. However, it can be problematic to the environment due to its highly saline nature and contaminated with mercury. Neff [18] reported that, about 8 pounds per year of total mercury are discharged with produced water. The dominant forms of mercury available in produced water are suspended mercury sulfide (HgS) and elemental mercury (Hgo) [2,13]. Similar forms of mercury are also found in produced water associated with gas production in the Gulf of Thailand [Frankiewicz and Tussaneyakul, 1997]. A treatment process to remove mercury from produced water prior to overboard discharge has been developed consisting of a three-phase separator to remove the gas and also condensate [Gallup and Strong, ; Sullivan et al., 2004]. Refinery Wastewater Refinery wastewaters streams typically contain vary widely chemical compositions having a large volume of water (per barrel of oil processed). Moreover, it also contains many regulated organic and inorganic contaminants (soluble or insoluble form) that can restrict its use and disposal thereof. In refineries, wastewater that entering the water treatment system is a composite of water discharge from processing units with different types and functions. The water streams from process units, cooling water and leakage in the system may contain some contaminated hydrocarbons [Veenstra et al., 2008]. The amount of mercury in refinery wastewater cannot be stated in certainty because of very little information is availably reported. The refinery biological water treatment generates several mercury compounds with a wide range of concentrations. The amount less than 5 percent of the total mercury concentration exists as a monomethylmercury, less than 0.01 percent as a dialkylmercury, and less than 0.1 percent as elemental mercury. Moreover, in a range of 10 to 30 percent exits as suspended particulate mercury with less than 10 percent as a labile Hg2+ and between 60 and 90 as an organochelated Hg2+. Reported by Bloom and Falke [21] that the concentration of total mercury in effluents from sewage treatment facilities is in the range of 5 to 20 ng/L. Drilling Wastes The exploration for oil and gas produces the drilling wastes which primarily consist of extracted cuttings and drilling muds. During drilling process, the drilling muds (also termed fluids) which inject into the well bore are identified as the sources of toxic materials that may discharges into aquatic environment surrounding offshore drilling operations [2,22,23]. Drilling muds is generally a viscous, heavy fluid designed to perform a variety of functions such as to transport rock chips (cuttings) from the bottom of the well up and out of the well bore, where the cuttings are screened and removed, and the separated mud is re-used. In addition, the drilling muds act to cool the drill bit, to stabilize the wells walls during drilling process and to control formation fluids that may flow into the well [23]. Besides, it also functions to minimize reservoir damage and limits corrosion. Most drilling muds are engineered slurries made up from drilling fluids, liquid-based mud (such as water-based muds, oil-based muds and synthetic-based muds), barite (optional additives), low gravity solids and treatment chemicals (bentonite clay) [23,24]. The drilled formation cuttings and barite contribute to the existing mercury as a trace mineral in drilling discharges. The concentrations of mercury in barite ores can vary widely from as little as 0.05 ppm to as much as 31 ppm. Moreover, mercury in drilling discharges is completely made of inorganic mercury which is extremely insoluble in water and not readily converted into organic methylmercury. The methylation process, which bioconverted mercury to methylmercury is dependent on several variables including an anoxic environment, low pH, presence of organic materials, low salinity, and warm temperatures. Associated Wastes The process of producing, treating, storing and transporting of oil and gas generates low volumes of a variety of wastes such as sludges, cleaning fluids, process treatment fluids, spent catalysts, spent removal system sorbents, debris and soils [12]. These wastes commonly known as associated wastes which are produced less than 1% of total volume of waste generated by oil and gas exploration and production [2]. Sludge is a semi-solid material tends to aggregate with mixture of one and more liquids and suspended solids. In hydrocarbon processing facilities, sludges are removed from tanks and vessels during maintenance and inspection. Mercury in hydrocarbon sludge is usually higher than the process fluid in the process stream. Since mercury has higher solubility in higher molecular weight organic compounds, it tends to accumulate in the sludges and turn out to be contaminant [12]. Solid wastes such as spent materials (i.e. spent catalyst and spent adsorbents) contain a significant quantity of mercury. The catalysts used in oil refining and chemical manufacturing accumulate mercury during their operations. The spent adsorbent obtained from the separation system, which is designed to remove mercury from gas, liquid and condensate has very high mercury content. Mercury also exists and contaminates the solvent used to liquefy sludge deposit in the process equipment and in process treatment of fluids for dehydration and sweetening processes [12]. Mercury Emissions to Atmosphere Air pollution has been linked to a number of significant problems such as ozone depletion, global climate change, acid rain, environmental degradation, and health effects in humans, plants, and animals. It is created by a number of different of sources and exits in a number of different forms. The point sources in industrial activities include chemical plants, oil refineries, power plants, hazardous waste incinerators and, oil and gas processing. It was estimated that the annual mercury emissions from oil and gas industry to atmophere in US is about 6,300 kg/year [2]. In natural gas industry, the emissions of mercury to the atmosphere could be through a glycol-overhead-gas. In the dehydration process, absorption liquids like glycols are used to absorb water and also mercury. On the elevated temperature, the glycol is regenerated and mercury is evaporated together with water. Therefore, the glycol-overheads containing mercury are released directly to the atmosphere [11]. In oil refinery, volatile and particulate mercury emissions to the atmosphere are claimed to generate mostly from the fuel combustion that are used to fire refinery process heaters and some amount from fugitive emissions. The fuels also include mostly gas and coke [25]. In refinery processing, catalyst is regenerated by using gas and some of the catalyst collect mercury and released it when regenerated. The gas from regeneration process which may contain higher amount of mercury than other typical gas flares is sent to flare [2]. Mercury Contaminated Facilities Mercury enters into gas gathering and processing facilities through the feed gas, from instruments used to measure gas properties and in used-catalyst. Several problems occur due to the existing mercury during the restoration. Mercury contaminated on steel surfaces and creeps by adsorbs into the micro-crevices and pore, although the temperature and pressure are at below condensation and without forming amalgams [11]. The pigging operations of mercury contaminated pipelines can generate sludge and debris that have high in mercury content [11,12]. Furthermore, during maintenance and cleaning activities, spillage of mercury from instruments contaminates buildings and soil [11,12]. Mercury Waste Treatment, Recycling, And Disposal Due to the extreme threat of mercury pollution, several remediation technologies have been developed, aim to remove mercury from wastewaters, although some works have targeted for mercury removal in gas phase. Mercury removal systems that are now prevalent for many processes which employ to protect equipment and catalysts for such systems depend on their chemical properties and process location [10]. Moreover, mercury waste can be treated and disposed by recovery; physical and chemical treatments, incineration and thermal process. Physical, Chemical and Thermal Treatments Physical separation methods depend on elemental mercurys high density and surface tension. This could be achieved by allowing segregation process to taking place. In contrast, mercury compounds differ from elemental since it cannot be physically separated. One of the examples of physical treatment is by using filtration equipment which employs to remove solid mercury from the waste streams. Removal and segregate waste mercury through equipment decontamination, soil remediation, fluid decontamination or disposal sludge processing are accomplished by using chemical treatments, precipitation treatment for filtration and aqueous extraction treatment. In addition, the thermal process (refer to distillation process) is used to remove mercury from the most mercury-contaminated area of oil and gas industry [11,12,26]. Several treatment processes have been developed to remove contaminants (i.e. mercury) from produced water prior to overboard discharge. The treatment processes involved re-injecting produced water back into rock formations from whence it originated. Figure 2 shows the original water treatment process based upon a sequence of stages according to the influent oil and solid content [27]. The first stage is characterized by a de-oiling unit, where water leaves the bottom of the separator and passes through desanding and de-oiling hydrocyclones. The water then enters the chemical treatment process followed by addition of an oxidant (NaOCl), ferric ions and a flocculant sequentially to form a floatable sludge consisting of ferric hydroxide, chemisorbed mercury, ferri-arsenate, and hydrocarbons (known as flotation units). The oxidation-reduction potential of the water is controlled by oxidant addition to allow Hg in elemental form [15,16]. There are several commercial processes available to prevent the mercury contamination at processing facilities. Table 5 summarizes the mercury removal systems for hydrocarbons and water which involve adsorption, chemical precipitation, ion exchange, iron cementation, membranes separation, and activated carbon adsorption [12]. Figure 2 Typical Produced Water Treatment [27] Recycling and Restoration The recovery process known as recycling or reuse method which involve a common process such as gravity separation, filtration, distillation, solvent, and chemical regeneration [28]. Physical methods could be neutralization, precipitation or separation and detoxification (chemical). Equipment decontamination is accomplished using chemical cleaning solutions that selectively oxidize complex elemental mercury deposits. These cleaning solutions consist of aqueous base solution having iodine as a complexing agent and organic solution (alcohol). In the case of incineration, the mercury contaminated waste is burnt at medium or high temperatures. For soil, sludge and debris must be thermally processed to remove mercury. The thermal process uses a vacuum, inert gas, or air as a carrier medium. However, if air is used, sulfur existed in matrix is converted to SO2 and hydrocarbons are oxidized to CO2 and H2O. Anaerobic thermal systems employ selective condensation and/or adsorption to separate sulfur and hydrocarbons from mercury. Spent adsorbent materials are also thermally processed using strictly anaerobic conditions to avoid exothermal reaction involving carbon [12,28]. As described above, mercury contamination can be preventing by using appropriate treatment processes. However, at the end of life cycle of gas installations, it may remain abandoned and need to be restored. For steel factories, scrap materials (i.e. tubings, flowlines, and facilities contaminated mercury) were cleaned before scrapping and added to steel production. Therefore, in European steel factories, the steel has to be cleaned or re-melting if the mercury contamination exceeds 2 to 10 mg per kg steel. In other cases, there are some processes available to clean mercury contaminated in pipelines and equipment such as sand blasting, high pressure water jetting, chemical process, milling techniques and also thermal treatment. Besides, the restoration or intermediate remediation of soil contaminated area is available with several soil cleaning methods [11]. Table 5 Mercury Removal Systems for Hydrocarbons and Water [12]. Method Process Comments Adsorption (Activated carbon, Sulfur, iodine impregnated carbon ) Mercury (Hgo) physically adsorbs and reacts to form non-volatile mercuric sulfide. Low saturation loading. Most used cheap, disposal problems. Prevalent wet collection To bubble gas (contain Hg) through permanganate solution. All Hg species convert to mercuric ion. Accurate, reasonably sensitive, increased corrosivity. Sulfide precipitation Sulfide reacts with ionic forms of Hg to form the insoluble mercuric sulfide and separated by filtration Increased corrosivity Ion exchange To remove ionic Hg from some waste streams. Regeneration problems, system contamination. Reverse osmosis treatment (semi-permeable membranes) Produce a clear permeate and a concentrate containing mercury Effective in treating specialized water streams Iron cementation (metal replacement process) Dissolved mercury cemented in a active metal (Zn or iron) Carried out in acid solution Disposal and Storage Waste materials that contain mercury need to be identified and characterized. They must be treated prior to disposal to avoid the long-term liabilities of burial or storage. Practically, all the mercury and contaminated materials should be accounted and collected because of the potential impacts of mercury into the environments. Removal of mercury from complex mixtures can be accomplished by combination of physical, chemical, immobilization, thermal, electrolytic and in-situ vitrification treatment methods. Sludge is one of the more difficult waste materials to process for treatment and disposal due to the existing of hydrocarbon in the matrix of sludge [12,28]. In the case of drilling fluid, it is often disposed of when a well is completed, and fresh fluid is used for any adjacent wells. Filtration processes have allowed drilling fluid to be reconditioned, so that it can be used for multiple wells before being discarded. Other possible uses for used drilling fluids are to plug-in the productive wells or to spud in new wells. Reuse of oil-based and synthetic-based drilling fluids to drill additional wells is common because of the high cost of the base fluids [29]. Mercury Emission Regulations Mercury is released through emissions from manufacturing, use or disposal activities. Environmental laws and regulations have been introduced by various regulatory bodies in order to protect the environment. Several specific laws such as Mercury Export Ban Act of 2008 and Mercury-Containing and Rechargable Battery Management Act of 1996 have been subjected related to mercury. In the case of environmental statutes such as Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and Safe Drinking Water Act, EPA has the responsibility to develop regulations to control some mercury emissions to air, water, or from wastes and products. The stringent regulations were recommended to set an upper-bound limit on the amount of mercury for any facilities. Besides, it is require for every power plant in the country to adopt the maximum available control technologies (MACT). The possible approaches of these MACT are to achieve the reduction in mercury emissions by setting the uniform emissions limits for existing facilities and more restrictive limits for new ones; and the mandatory emissions reductions with an emissions credit trading system. Concluding Remarks Mercury is often present in oil and gas with various concentration and species. Mercury is toxic to both human health and the environment. It also leads to the potential of plant failure. Mercury emissions from oil and gas exploration, production, and processing into the environment could be via wastewater (produced water, refinery wastewater), solid waste (drilling waste, refinery waste) and contaminated facilities. The mercury emissions to atmosphere originate from gas processing plant, flared gas refineries, and fuel burning for process utilities. To minimize the amount of mercury emissions, several techniques for monitoring and removal of mercury have been developed. These include segregation, treatment, recovery, and disposal of mercury waste in the process. In treatment process, it involves physical, thermal, and chemical processes to remove the contaminated mercury. The waste materials that contain mercury are usually treated to remove mercury prior to the disposal and storage . Concluding Remarks The financial support from the MOSTI under the e-Science Research Program (Project No. 03-01-06-SF0464) is gratefully acknowledged. Amin-Nejad S., Smith J.S., and Lucas.J (2003). A Visual Servoing System for Edge Trimming of Fabric Embroideries by Laser. Journal of Mechatronics, Pergamon Press, New York. ISSN 0957-4158. 13(6): pp533-551.

Analysis of The Indian in the Cupboard by Lynne Reid Banks Essay

Analysis of The Indian in the Cupboard by Lynne Reid Banks For this month’s book report I read a book called ‘The Indian in the Cupboard’ by Lynne Reid Banks. This book was about a boy named Omri and his small Indian toy. For Omri’s birthday he received a small Indian toy from a friend and a small cupboard from his brother. Omri put his Indian in the cupboard and to his surprise when he opened the cupboard the Indian toy had come to life. Omri has to keep his Indian a secret for fear of an adult finding out. When Omri told his friend Patrick about the toy, Patrick wanted his own. Omri thought it was a bad idea but brought the toy to life anyway. When Omri brought Patrick’s cowboy toy to life, Patrick was very excited, but Omri was afraid he didn’t know that they were real people. Omri decided he would keep them both at his house. Patrick did not like this idea but agreed only if Omri would bring the cowboy and Indian to school the next day. Then all the trouble started. Patrick and Omri were called into the headmaster’s office and the headmaster threatened to call Patrick’s father if he didn’t tell him what was going on. Patrick was so afraid that he showed the headmaster the Indian and the other toy. Luckily the headmaster thought he was seeing things and so he went home. Omri decided that the Indian was too much trouble and that he should put them into plastic again. So Omri locked the Indian into the cupboard and when he opened it again, the toy was p...

Alcoholism: a Menace to the Society Essay

Filipinos love to drink alcoholic beverages, that is. Drinking sessions are seen almost everywhere everyday along the streets and sidewalks, inside homes, in carinderia and corner sari-sari store, and even the upmarket bars and bistros. So phenomenal has been the â€Å"tumahan† tradition that it became the undisputed national pastime and social culture of Filipinos. While local folks’ love for drinking session might have built many a friendship and warm the cockles of good ole acquaintances, it is, at the same, taking toll on the drinkers’ health. Alcoholism, also called alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction, is a destructive pattern of alcohol use that includes tolerance to or withdrawal from the substance, using more alcohol or using it for longer than planned, and trouble reducing its use. Other potential symptoms include spending an inordinate amount of time getting, using, or recovering from the use of alcohol, compromised functioning, and/or continuing to use alcohol despite an awareness of the detrimental effects it is having on one’s life. Alcoholism is appropriately considered a disease rather than a weakness of character or chosen pattern of bad behavior. Many persons have become addicted to alcohol. It undoubtedly has something to do with the euphoric quality of alcohol and the resultant high. According to Vern Mason, â€Å"it is amazing how many kinds of alcohol can come out of the same bottle. It all depends who’s drinking it†. There are basically two types of drinkers who may become alcoholic. Some become chronic alcoholics from the outset almost, steadily drinking larger amounts everyday. Others may drink socially or the binge drinkers on weekends. They sort of steadily increase their drinking. The end result is the same, alcoholism. The damaging effect of alcohol stands among the leading public health problems in the world. It deserves personal concern and national action if we are to remain sober and responsible people. Alcohol abuse is a disease that is characterized by the sufferer having a pattern of drinking excessively despite the negative effects of alcohol on the individual’s work, medical, legal, educational, and/or social life. Alcohol abuse affects about 10% of women and 20% of men in the United States, most beginning by their mid teens. Signs of alcohol intoxication include the smell of alcohol on the breath or skin, glazed or bloodshot eyes, the person being unusually passive or argumentative, and/or a deterioration in the person’s appearance or hygiene. Almost 2,000 people under 21 years of age die each year in car crashes in which underage drinking is involved. Alcohol is involved in nearly half of all violent deaths involving teens. Alcoholism is a destructive pattern of alcohol use that includes a number of symptoms, including tolerance to or withdrawal from the substance, using more alcohol and/or for a longer time than planned, and trouble reducing its use. Alcohol, especially when consumed in excess, can affect teens, women, men, and the elderly quite differently. Risk factors for developing a drinking problem include low self-esteem, depression, anxiety or another mood problem, as well as having parents with alcoholism. Alcohol dependence has no one single cause and is not directly passed from one generation to another genetically. Rather, it is the result of a complex group of genetic, psychological, and environmental factors. There is no one test that definitively indicates that someone has an alcohol-use disorder. Therefore, health-care practitioners diagnose these disorders by gathering comprehensive medical, family, and mental-health information. Alcohol use increases medical risks. Alcohol seriously interacts with a number of drugs as well as several other medications by either increasing their potency or decreasing their effectiveness. Alcohol also prolongs the length of recovery after anesthesia. (Modern Medicine, pp. 160-165) Some signs of a drinking problem include drinking alone, to escape problems, or for the sole purpose of getting drunk; hiding alcohol in odd places; getting irritated when you are unable to obtain alcohol to drink; and having problems because of your drinking. According to the research of Aileen Ludington and Hans Diehl, alcohol greatly affects the human body: Your brain. Alcohol, even in small amounts, causes irreparable damage to brain cells; some die and others are altered. Your heart. Alcohol increases the risk of hypertension, stroke, and damage to the heart muscle. Your lungs. Alcohol depresses respiratory functions. Your reproductive system. In men, alcohol can damage cells in the testes, causing impotence, sterility, and possibly enlarged breasts. In women, alcohol can cause irregular menstrual cycles and malfunctioning of the ovaries. Alcohol has also been linked to birth defects in infants and to fetal alcohol syndrome. Your liver. Because your liver must filter alcohol from the blood, alcohol affects it more than any other organ of your body. Excess calories in alcohol are stored as fat in the liver. Functioning liver cells die from alcoholic poisoning. Scar tissue replaces dead cells, causing cirrhosis. Your immune system. Alcohol weakens the body’s defense against infection and breast cancer. Therefore, I conclude that alcoholism is a disease found in every social and economic class, in every country in the world. The problem is stinging: an alcoholic cannot control the amount he or she drinks; occasional drinkers may dive into the alcohol problem with little control on those little drinking bout. In learning that alcoholism is an illness, a child is provided with a cognitive means by which to understand a confusing, often traumatizing, emotional experience. This could range from a simple conceptualization to a more empathetic understanding of his or her parent. Relabeling the parent’s behavior helps the child feel less out of control. Learning that it is an illness not caused by the child also to helps to improve the child’s reality-testing and reduces anxiety, anger, and guilt. (National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. â€Å"Underage Drinking. † Alcohol Alert 67 Jan. 2006. ) Trusted adults, clergymen or guidance counselors are worthy ones to be sought for advice. The important thing is to reach out. And if you’re ashamed of your family, try not to be. Many people understand that alcoholism is a disease, you needn’t let shame burden you. Diverting your attention, being preoccupied with worthwhile activities can do a lot to your nerves.

Managing and Reducing Cardiovascular Risk in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Essay

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder in which the body’s capacity to make use of glucose, fat and protein is disturbed due to insulin deficiency or insulin resistance. It is a hormone secreted from pancreas that helps glucose from food to enter the body’s cells where it is transformed into energy required by muscles and tissues to function. Diabetes is caused either because the pancreas does not secrete adequate insulin, or because cells do not react to the insulin that is produced. Due to this reason, an individual with diabetes does not take up glucose appropriately and glucose continues circulating in the blood (hyperglycaemia) harming tissues over time. This damage leads to acute health complications. The classic symptoms of diabetes mellitus are, Polyuria ,Polydipsia ,Polyphagia ,lethargy and weight loss. There are many causes for high blood glucose levels in the body and so a number of types of diabetes exist. Diabetes mellitus occur throughout the world. Based on the study conducted by IDF, the number of diabetics on earth stands at 365 million nearly 8. 5% of the global population. It is more widespread in the more developed countries. The greatest raise in incidence is, however, expected to happen in Africa and Asia, where majority of the diabetes patients will most likely be found by 2030. Diabetes mellitus is categorised into four broad groups: Type 1, Type 2, Gestational diabetes & â€Å"other specific types†. Scientists in US have found a Type 3 diabetes, it is still continuing further study. Type 1 diabetes is absolute insulin deficiency usually affects children and young adults. Type 2 Diabetes is an insidious progressive disease that is often diagnosed late when complication are present. Dunning (2004) described it as a long term complication with neuropathy, cardiovascular disease and retinopathy. It is a universal metabolic disorder affecting more than 2 million people in the United Kingdom and up to 750,000 more are expected to have it without knowing they do. Studies conducted show that 80% of population affected by diabetes live in developing and underdeveloped countries and the majority of people with diabetes is between 40 to 59 years of age. It is also estimated that 183 million people (50%) with diabetes are undiagnosed. It is noticed that Diabetes caused 4. million deaths in 2011 and caused sharp increase in medical expenditure. I am a staff nurse working in the cardiac ward and we often receive patients with cardiac problems as a long term complication of type 2 diabetes. Cardiovascular disease is a major cause of hospital admission and mortality in people with diabetes. Most of them are not diagnosed until they are admitted. During the course of this study the medical history and care and treatment provided to a patient named Mr M Davies who was admitted in my ward is chosen to learn about managing and reducing cardiovascular disease among patients with type 2 diabetes. In 1998 UKPDS pointed out the importance of reducing lipids blood pressure and blood Glucose to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Hypertension leads to thicker, less elastic blood vessel walls and increase the strain on the heart. Studies indicated that there is a linear correlation between the diastolic blood pressure and the eventual outcome of type 2 diabetes. Standl & Schnell (2000) pointed out that as a result of ischemia-induced remodelling subtle changes occur in the heart and the effects of hyperglycaemia on the endothelium of large blood vessels that causes heart to failure. Mr M Davies (Mr.  MD) is a 61-year-old pensioner with a 4 years history of type 2 diabetes. He was diagnosed in 2008 and he had symptoms of hyperglycaemia for 2 years before diagnosis. His fasting blood glucose records indicated values of 6–7 mmol/L, which were explained to him as symptomatic of â€Å"borderline diabetes. † During the preliminary diagnosis, he was advised to reduce weight (â€Å"at least 10 lb. †), but no further action was taken. Other medical problems include obesity and hypertension. He was admitted in the ward with recurrent chest pain. (Appendix 1) This assignment is about managing and reducing cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Heart disease is well acknowledged as a chronic problem of diabetes, and is the major reason of morbidity and mortality in patients from middle-age onwards. Type 2 diabetes is associated at the onset with risk factors for heart disease such as hypertension and obesity, raising the question of whether diabetes is the independent risk factor for heart disease. In 2001 Morrish et al pointed out that the majority of cardiovascular deaths are specifically due to heart disease and this is supported by Fisher, Miles, (2008) commenting that heart disease is the major cause of morbidity and mortality at young as well as older ages. Butler (1997) said that increased life expectancy has led to an increase in the number of people over 65 years of in both the developed and developing worlds. Marso (2003) pointed out that due to the clear association between age and the development diabetes, this increase in the number of older individuals in the population will inevitably contribute to the increased prevalence of diabetes. Watkins (2008) mentioned that Type 2 diabetes is a disease of relative prosperity, prosperity leads to overweight and physical indolence. Insulin resistance, increasing with obesity, associated with progressive failure of insulin secretion in relation to ageing underlies the development of diabetes. It is anticipated that by 2025 the number of people with type 2 diabetes will be around 380 million and people with impaired glucose tolerance will be around 418 million. Diabetes is the foremost global cause of premature mortality that is broadly underestimated, because only a few among the diabetic patients die from reasons uniquely related to the condition. Nearly one half of type 2 diabetes patients die prematurely of a cardiovascular reason and approximately 10% die of renal failure. Diabetes is a condition that required to be managed every day. The management of Diabetes can refer to dealing with short term measures like high and low blood sugar to regulating it over the long term for instance by attaining to grips with knowing the condition. All patients with Type 2 diabetes require active dietary management throughout their disease. Watkins (2008) pointed out that weight loss in the obese is extremely valuable but is separate from dietary manipulations to control blood glucose. Treatment typically includes diet control, exercise, monitoring blood sugar at home, and in some cases, oral medication and/or taking insulin. Based on the type diabetes medicines are classified into different groups and each category of diabetes pills functions differently. Commonly used medicines to control diabetes are Sulfonylureas, Thiazolidinediones, Biguanides, Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, Meglitinides and, Dipeptidyl peptidase IV. Sulfonylureas reduce blood sugar by stimulating the pancreas to produce more insulin. Sulfonylureas medicines like Glimeperide, Gliclazide,. Biguanides improve insulin’s capacity to transfer sugar into cells particularly into the muscle cells. They also stop the liver from releasing stored sugar. Biguanides are not advised to be used in people who have heart failure or kidney damage. Biguanides medicines such as Metformin. Thiazolidinediones like Pioglitazone and Rosiglitazone enhances effectiveness of insulin in muscle and in fat tissue. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, such as Precose (acarbose) and Glyset (miglitol) prevent enzymes that help digest starches, reducing the rise in blood sugar. These medicines may cause diarrhea or gas. They can decrease hemoglobin A1c by 0. 5%-1%. Meglitinides, like Prandin (repaglinide) and Starlix (nateglinide) reduces blood sugar level by stimulating the pancreas to secreate more insulin. Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) inhibitors, such as Januvia (sitagliptin), Onglyza (saxagliptin), and Tradjenta (linagliptin) lowers blood sugar level in patients with type 2 diabetes by accelerating insulin secretion from the pancreas and lowering sugar production. The case history of Mr. MD indicated that he was advised to manage blood sugar level by diet control and regular exercise. It was also advised to take metformin 1000mg twice a day when diet and exercise are not enough to manage blood sugar level. The history showed that Mr. MD was non-compliance with any of these. On admission his random blood sugar was 20 mmol/L. As he was unable to tolerate oral intake due to nausea and chest pain, GKI was commenced for a day to control his blood sugar. On second day his blood sugar level was controlled and he started eating and drinking normally. Mr MD was referred to diabetic specialist nurse and dietician . Diabetic specialist nurse advised to stop GKI and advised to start OHA. Mr. MD commenced on metformin 1000mg three times a day (Learning outcome 1). Metformin has long been accepted as a appropriate first-line choice of oral medicine for Type 2 diabetes as it is the only oral hypoglycaemic agent related with no weight gain or even weight reduction. They decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis, boost peripheral glucose uptake and also lower the absorption of carbohydrate from the gut lumen. Because metformin functions on insulin sensitivity and with only endogenous glucose stimulated insulin secretion, it virtually never causes hypoglycaemia on its own and patients using it with diet and exercise do not need routinely to self-monitor blood glucose. The UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS, 2002) demonstrated a significant survival advantage for Type 2 patients started on metformin as first-line therapy, with less cardiovascular mortality, although it should be noted that they only used the drug in obese patients. Obesity is a worldwide problem. Barnett (2009) pointed out that obesity and overweight are independent risk factors for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Various studies reveal that obesity is a major cardiovascular disease risk factor across world’s populations. Risk of morbidity and mortality begins to increase at body mass index (BMI) >25 kg/m 2 and the risk raises sharply at BMI >30 kg/m 2. Each kilogram of weight put on from the age of 18 years was linked with 3. 1% higher risk of cardiovascular disease. In 1998 Gunnell observed that over weight in adolescence is a forecaster of these dangers in adulthood . These finding were supported by Must in 1992,who explained that this increased risk extends to overweight children and adolescents, who may be at risk of premature cardiovascular morbidity and death. The mechanism by which obesity causes increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality is attributed to associated co-morbidities and risk factors such as hypertension, dyslipidaemia, type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. The co-occurrence of some or all of these risk factors along with obesity is termed the cardiometabolic syndrome. On examination it was noticed that Mr.  MD has a high BMI (30. 9). West (2007). Suggested that addressing obesity is an essential aspect of managing diabetes, because type2 diabetes and many other health problems coexist. However it is important to consider the individual’s specific nutritional needs rather than just providing them with a ‘weight loss plan,’ ‘diabetic diet,’ a ‘standard meal plan or information about healthy eating. ’ Mr. MD was referred to the dietician. Dietician gave dietary advice and educated about importance of weight management by diet and regular exercise. He was advised to avoid take-away foods, reduce alcohol consumption and taking balanced food to prevent hypo and hyper glycaemia (Learning outcome 1).. Hypertension-Prevention & Management is very important in the management of metabolic diseases. In 1985 Modan et al pointed out that there is a strong relationship between high blood pressure and insulin resistance. This findings is supported by Reaven, (1999) . He said that the prevalence of insulin resistance in hypertension has been estimated at 50%. Scheen, (2004) proposed several possible mechanisms for this. Coutinho et al. (1999) said that impaired fasting blood glucose is related with high cardiovascular risk particularly if accompanied by hypertension. Henry et al. , (2002) said that in people with diabetes, cardiovascular disease risk is increased two to fourfold compared with those with normal glucose tolerance. This was supported by the study conducted by Heffner et al. , (1998) who said that diabetic people without past history of myocardial infarction may have as high a risk of myocardial infarction as non-diabetic patients with a history of previous myocardial infarction. Non-pharmacological interventions are cheap than pharmacological interventions and have no known dangerous effects. A range of lifestyle changes reduce blood pressure and the occurrence of hypertension. Non-pharmacological interventions such as weight loss in the overweight, exercise programmes, limiting alcohol intake and a diet with increased fruit and vegetables and limited saturated fat content, minimising dietary sodium consumption and increased dietary potassium intake. From the medical history of Mr MD it is noticed that he was taking Ramipril 5 mg/day and bisoprolol2. mg/daily. It is established that where non-pharmacological interventions are not enough to achieve the objectives then Pharmacological interventions are required. Several drug treatments are of proven value in minimising cardiovascular risk in people with diabetes and hypertension. Low-dose aspirin is suggested in diabetes whether or not there is evidence of large vessel disease. Williams et al. , (2004) noticed that the British Hypertension Society recommends 75 mg of aspirin for all with hypertension and diabetes, unless contraindicated. Antihypertensive therapy diminishes the risk of macrovascular complications by around 20%. Reducing blood pressure reduces progression of retinopathy, albuminuria and progression to nephropathy. Staessen et al. , (1997) observed that clinical trials with ACE inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, angiotensin receptor blockers and calcium channel blockers have demonstrated benefit of treatment of hypertension in type 2 diabetes (Learning outcome 1).. On admission blood pressure level of Mr MD was very high. He was recommended treatment with antihypertensive drugs. Consultant prescribed Losartan 100 mg/day and increased ACE inhibitor (ramipril 10 mg/day) and beta-blocker (bisoprolol 5 mg/dayl). Studies show that treatment with ramipril in addition to standard therapy minimised combined myocardial infarction, stroke and cardiovascular death by about 25% and stroke by 33% compared with placebo plus conventional methods. This was supported by Sowers and Haffner, (2002) saying that almost all patients with hypertension and diabetes require combinations of blood pressure reducing drugs to attain the recommended blood pressure targets. During the treatment Mr. MD was advised non-pharmacological methods of blood pressure management and importance of diet control and referred to cardiac rehabilitation for regular exercise. Management of high cholesterol plays an important role in the management of diabetes. Lipid abnormalities are common in type 2 diabetes and can be broadly categorized into two groups: those that are common to the general population, for example elevated total and LDL cholesterol; and additional diabetes-related abnormalities, for example elevated triglycerides and reduced HDL cholesterol. Current US and European guidelines emphasize reducing LDL-C level to less than 100 mg/dL (2. 59 mmol/L). To reduce the cholesterol Mr. MD was undergone intensive lipid-lowering treatment with atorvastatin 80 mg/day. Dietary therapy was also a part of the treatment which was found effective to lower Lipids. Interventions to stabilize lipids in order to decrease the risk of CVD are warranted in people with type 2 diabetes. Both Fibrates and Statins improve lipid profiles in people with diabetes. Many studies have established the safety and effectiveness of the fibrates (gemfibrozil, bezofibrate, fenofibrate) in diabetes. Fibrates stimulate the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-a, changing the expression of a number of enzymes that regulate lipid metabolism, including lipoprotein lipase. Statins inhibit hepatic 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase, which is rate restrictive in cholesterol production. Another major strategy in the management diabetes is lifestyle interventions. Lifestyle interventions can progress lipid levels. Studies conducted on weight loss and lipids in type 2 diabetes have varied greatly as to the study diet, design and duration. A Meta-analysis of 89 studies and 1800 subjects with type 2 diabetes reported that a weight loss of 5% or greater reduced triglyceride levels by 10 ±40% and total cholesterol by 5 ±15%. These effects were greatest with very low-calorie diets, and the effects were seen in studies up to 6 months. A variety of diets can alter the lipid profile in people with type 2 diabetes. The organisation of diabetes care is very important in the long term management of diabetes care. Diabetes is the significant disease confronting the United Kingdom’s (UK) health care system. As a result, understanding how best to manage diabetes facilities is an important area if the health system is going to deal with the growth in both the demand for and cost of diabetes treatment. Care should be planed at reducing symptoms and minimizing the danger of long-term problems. It is pointed out that a proper balance of glucose and other cardiovascular risk factors such as smoking, hypertension, inactive lifestyle, dyslipidaemia and obesity is very crucial (UKPDS, 2002) in the organisation care of diabetes.

Cougar Hunting essays

Cougar Hunting essays In Washington state voters banning the use of hounds for cougar hunting in 1996. Cougars, also known as mountain lions or pumas, are native to Washington State. About 2,500 live in this state, double the populations of the early 1980s, and their numbers are growing, in the last years since this law has been pass. Cougars are the reason the deer population is going down; the average cougar kills about 65 deer a year. The following stats are a picture to show what is happening and will keep happening until we pass the hound hunting law. There have been 10 fatal cougar attacks on people recorded since 1980, but five of those were in the past 10 years. In Colorado, cougars have attacked three hikers in the last year, including killing a 10-year-old hiker in July 1997 at Rocky Mountain National Park. Non-lethal attacks are also on the rise for instance, a 6-year-old boy non-fatally attacked on July 31, 1998, in Montana. In California, a ban on all sport hunting of cougars helped double their numbers since 1972 to an estimated 5,000 animals. Even after cougars killed two California hikers, voters rejected a 1996 proposal to reinstate hunting. Hunters note that an average of 100 "problem" cougars are killed each year in California, about twice the number killed annually by hunters before the 1972 ban. Many hunters and some game officials believe cougars are becoming bolder and less scared of man in the absence of hunting. As Washington expands to the woods and outer city limits the cougars are being forced from there home and are becoming dangerously close to our family and friends. If they are not controlled they will dominate the prey and people around them. The use of hounds would be a great aid in the regaining of the cougar population in Washington and the rest of the USA. The cougar population will go back to normal when hounds are legal to use again. T ...